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BTS articles are accessible, engaging and packed with cutting-edge analysis. They're perfect for scholars, students, practitioners, activists, and anybody else wanting to better understand exploitation in the global economy today.

For our tenth anniversary, we've collected everything we've ever published into a single, searchable e-handbook. Containing 1000 articles from 800 authors, this book has you covered no matter where your interests lie. A gift to you, our readers, from us.

Dear Sarnia,

Parties for ten year olds are popular in the anti-trafficking world right now. The Freedom Fund celebrated a decade last May, the UK’s Modern Slavery Act in March. Closer to home, we at Beyond Trafficking and Slavery (BTS) also just entered double figures. It was either throw a party as well or take a long, hard look in the mirror. We opted for the latter.

In comes our new, ten-year anniversary feature. This series of articles takes stock by asking how the anti-trafficking field has evolved and where it looks to be heading in the future. And it turns the microscope on ourselves, by offering up a critique of anti-trafficking’s critics – including BTS – over the last decade.

After ten years of work, we really want to know: why, from our vantage point, does it seem like the world has made so little progress on moving Beyond Trafficking and Slavery?

Running in circles or moving forward?

When BTS was founded in 2014, our primary goal was to amplify the voices of activists and researchers who were trying to chart a course away from criminal justice responses to exploitation. We united around a shared suspicion of the anti-trafficking ‘mainstream’, which we regarded as self-serving and superficial, and a shared concern that anti-trafficking campaigns were displacing collective struggles for migrant and worker rights.

We believed that moving beyond trafficking and slavery required focusing upon economic and political systems, rather than individual criminals. That meant facing up to the elephant in the room: neoliberal capitalism.

We have now spent over a decade trying to change how people respond to human trafficking. But despite our best efforts, all the things we hoped to move beyond remain foundational to anti-trafficking policy and activism today. We sometimes feel like a hamster on a wheel. No matter how fast we run, we keep seeing the same kinds of talking points, policies, and arguments show up. We know many of our readers and writers share this frustration.

Through conversations with our contributors, readers and critics, we've identified some key mistakes we've made over the years. Firstly, it was wrong to place trafficking at the centre of our analysis. By doing so, we've become dependent on the very problem we seek to resolve. We've also come to learn that debates about terminology don't tend to get us very far. And that we can't treat anti-trafficking as a monolith, because the field is not one thing.

Find out more about what we've learnt, and what we'd do differently if we could start all over again:

Explore the series so far

Ten years on, have we moved Beyond Trafficking and Slavery?
We started BTS in 2014 to help everyone better understand the root causes of exploitation. Did we succeed?
What helps practitioners listen to their critics? An interview with Nick Grono
Freedom Fund’s CEO says it’s ‘ridiculous’ to criticise anti-trafficking as a whole. To be heard, critics must be more precise
We know how to identify exploitation. Now we need to stop it
Ten years after the UK committed to tackle modern slavery, we’re no closer to preventing it. But we have the tools
Labour rights won't make criminal gangs go away
‘Decent work’ isn’t always possible. Advocates should stop shying away from criminal justice in anti-trafficking
Twenty years of slow progress: Is anti-trafficking changing?
Two decades in, Anti-Trafficking Review’s editor says maybe activists still don’t understand social change

Chapter 3: The Medieval & Religious Age: Repression and Subversion (500-1500 CE)

The medieval period was marked by the rise and dominance of religious institutions across Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. While Christian doctrine in Europe sought to suppress overt erotic expression, the period also saw the flourishing of sensuality in Islamic, Persian, and Asian art. This era was shaped by a tension between repression and subversion, where eroticism was either concealed within religious allegory or celebrated through poetic and artistic traditions in other cultures.

Christian Influence: Modesty, Censorship, and Hidden Eroticism

With the spread of Christianity in Europe, attitudes toward sexuality were increasingly shaped by religious dogma. The Church regarded sex as a necessary act for procreation but condemned carnal pleasure outside marriage, leading to widespread censorship of erotic expression. Art of the period emphasized modesty, with depictions of the nude body becoming rare in contrast to the sensuality of classical antiquity. However, despite official doctrine, traces of eroticism remained within religious art.

One of the ways artists subverted repression was through coded symbolism. Biblical stories such as the temptation of Eve or the Song of Songs provided opportunities to depict sensual imagery under the guise of spiritual allegory. Illuminated manuscripts and church frescoes sometimes contained figures with subtle yet suggestive body language, hidden within religious contexts. The grotesque and bawdy marginalia found in some medieval manuscripts—such as the Luttrell Psalter—revealed a playful, often sexually irreverent countercurrent within a society outwardly dominated by strict moral codes.

Islamic and Persian Art: Poetic Sensuality and Miniature Paintings

Unlike medieval Christian Europe, Islamic and Persian cultures developed a rich tradition of erotic poetry and visual art. While Islamic doctrine discouraged the depiction of human figures in religious art, secular works, particularly in Persian miniatures, captured a refined and poetic sensuality. The medieval Persian world inherited the tradition of pre-Islamic erotic poetry, which flourished in the works of poets like Rumi, Hafez, and Omar Khayyam. Their verses often used wine, gardens, and nightingales as metaphors for love and desire, blurring the lines between the spiritual and the erotic.

Persian miniature paintings, particularly those from the Safavid and Mughal periods, often depicted intimate courtly scenes, sometimes with subtly erotic undertones. These paintings, created for royal patrons, celebrated the pleasures of love, feasting, and music. Although nudity was rare, the elongated and graceful figures, combined with lush settings, suggested a deep appreciation of beauty and desire. Some miniatures explicitly depicted lovers in private moments, accompanied by elaborate textiles and luxurious interiors that enhanced the sensual atmosphere.

Asian Erotica: Chinese Silk Paintings and Japanese Scrolls

Medieval China and Japan developed their own traditions of erotic art, which were often intertwined with literature and philosophy. In China, eroticism was linked to Taoist beliefs that emphasized the harmony of yin and yang. Chinese silk paintings from the Tang and Song dynasties depicted lovers engaged in intimate acts, reflecting an appreciation for refined sensuality. Erotic art was also instructional, used in sex manuals that promoted physical and spiritual well-being through balanced sexual relations.

Japan, particularly during the Heian and Kamakura periods, saw the production of erotic scrolls known as shunga. These works, often produced by esteemed artists, illustrated explicit erotic scenes accompanied by humorous or poetic text. Shunga was widely collected by samurai and courtiers, regarded as a form of both entertainment and sexual education. The interplay between refinement and raw desire was a key feature of Japanese erotic art, demonstrating a cultural acceptance of pleasure that contrasted sharply with the religious repression in Europe.

Focus Study: The Romance of the Western Chamber (China) and Persian Miniature Paintings

The Romance of the Western Chamber (Xi Xiang Ji) is a celebrated example of medieval Chinese literature, written by Wang Shifu during the Yuan dynasty. This play tells the story of a secret love affair between a young scholar and a noblewoman, with scenes of passionate encounters and emotional turmoil. While not explicitly an erotic work, its themes of forbidden love, clandestine meetings, and sensual longing reflect a sophisticated approach to romance and desire in Chinese culture. The play was widely illustrated in woodblock prints and paintings, often emphasizing the tender yet intense connection between lovers.

Persian miniature paintings, particularly those illustrating works like the "Khamseh" of Nizami, provide another significant example of medieval erotic art. These works often depicted famous love stories, such as that of Layla and Majnun, with scenes of longing and stolen moments of intimacy. The attention to detail, from the intricate patterns of clothing to the carefully arranged postures of the figures, heightened the sensual appeal of these compositions.

Conclusion

The medieval period was a complex era for erotic art, marked by stark contrasts between repression and celebration. While Christian Europe imposed severe limitations on the expression of sexuality, it survived in subversive ways through allegory and coded symbolism. Meanwhile, the Islamic world and Asian cultures embraced sensuality through poetry, miniature paintings, and scrolls that blended eroticism with philosophy and aesthetics. The era’s artistic expressions of desire, whether hidden or overt, reveal the enduring power of eroticism to transcend cultural and religious constraints.